As a whole, Tennessee’s waters were never polluted to the extent of other areas in the country. Prior to the establishment of the Stream Pollution Control Board, however, it was common for cities to discharge untreated sewage into creeks and rivers. Ind ustrial discharges had eliminated fish and other aquatic life from even some of the larger rivers.
"Recognizing that the waters of Tennessee are the property of the state and are held in public trust for the use of the people of the state, it is declared to be the public policy of Tennessee that the people of Tennessee have a right to unpol luted waters. In the exercise of its public trust of the waters of the state, the government of Tennessee has an obligation to take all prudent steps to secure, protect, and preserve this right.” -- Tennessee Water Quality Control Act of 1971
The Tennessee General Assembly created the Stream Pollution Control Board in 1945, making Tennessee the first state in the South to pass a water pollution control law. Long before the federal Clean Water Act of 1972, the citizens of this state had made significant progress in protecting our water resources.
The single most important factor in this process occurred in 1944, when the TVA loaned Mr. S. Leary Jones to the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC). Through the vision of Mr. Jones, the Stream Pollution Control Board initiated a proactive program that helped protect our streams and encouraged the development of a network of wastewater treatment systems. This leadership extends to the present, with the Division of Water Pollution Control leading the nation in the innovative control of toxic chemicals, stream alterations and combined sewer overflows.
Another milestone occurred with the passage of the 1971 Water Quality Act and the establishment of the Tennessee Water Quality Control Board under Governor Winfield Dunn. The Water Quality Control Board has adopted a goal to reclaim polluted waters, prevent future pollution and plan for the future use of our state’s waters. To accomplish this goal, the TDEC uses both regulatory and non-regulatory programs. The regulatory programs include permitting, compliance assurance, complaint investigation and enforcement. Non-regulatory program elements include infrastructure grants and loans, water quality monitoring and technical assistance.
Surface Water Quality:
Major Improvements - Significant Challenges
There are over 540,000 lake acres and approximately 19,000 stream miles within Tennessee’s boundaries. Approximately 79 percent of our lake acres and 65 percent of our stream miles are of excellent quality.
Many different pollutants from a variety of sources affect the quality of our lakes and streams. While no single cause of impairment is dominant, conventional pollutants such as silt, suspended solids, nutrients and organics affect both streams and lakes. Silt and suspended solids can block light penetration and smother aquatic life. Excessive nutrients can cause an unhealthy overgrowth of aquatic plant life. Decaying organic materials cause dissolved oxygen levels to drop below that necessary to support fish and other types of aquatic life.
Other causes of stream impairment include toxic materials, bacteria and flow alteration. The sources of these pollutants include storm water from developed and agricultural areas, failing sewer systems and stream modifications.
The TDEC posts warning signs on streams or lakes where pollution problems may endanger public health and safety. To inform the public concerning a potential danger, the TDEC places warning signs at public access points and advises local news media of the action. Lists of posted streams are also published in TDEC reports and in Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) fishing regulations.
In Tennessee, the most common reason for posting a river or lake is the presence of sewage bacteria or other harmful contaminants in water, sediment or fish tissue. Currently, 59 bodies of water are posted. More than 110 river miles are posted due to bacterial contamination, while approximately 84,100 lake acres and 142 river miles are posted because of contaminated fish.
Groundwater - A Fragile Resource
The varying geology across the state has produced very distinctive types of aquifers from which we get our groundwater. Two major types of aquifers are found in Tennessee — the sand aquifers of West Tennessee and the karst limestones of Middle and East Tennessee. Water in sand aquifers is commonly soft and slightly acidic. Karst aquifers are characterized by sinkholes, springs, caves and disappearing streams.
Nearly all of the citizens of West Tennessee rely on groundwater for their drinking water. The city of Memphis has the largest groundwater withdrawal (147 million gallons a day) of any municipality in the southeastern United States. For the state as a whole, approximately 1.5 million people rely on groundwater from public water systems, with an additional 400,000+ persons relying on private wells and springs.
Many people mistakenly believe that water out of the ground is always pure, clean and immune to contamination. While the quality of our groundwater is generally very good, there are some problems that affect its usage. For example, groundwater in karst areas is subject to contamination from surface waters. In fact, approximately two-thirds of the public water systems in Middle and East Tennessee depend on groundwaters that are directly influenced by surface water.
Surface water can contain harmful bacteria and protozoa; "true" groundwater, however, generally will be devoid of these organisms. Water systems using groundwater under the direct influence of surface water are required to provide additional treatment, including filtration.
Subsurface sewage disposal systems, primarily septic tanks, are among the most frequent and widespread sources of groundwater pollution. In response to this concern, each county in the state has one or more specialists to inspect, permit and consult on the proper installation of septic tanks. A law passed by the General Assembly in 1994, which requires state approval of septic systems before electrical connections can be made, is expected to reduce dramatically the number of faulty, illegal systems installed in the state.
Chemical contamination also influences groundwater quality. A number of wells across the state, both private and public, have been contaminated with chemical pollutants. Some of these wells have been closed, and additional treatment systems have been installed on others.
Tennessee’s urban population and diverse economy generate a wide variety of potential groundwater contaminants. Industries, commercial establishments and residences produce large quantities of solid wastes, hazardous wastes and wastewaters with the potential to pollute groundwater. Another threat comes from modern agricultural practices that involve the handling and application of large amounts of many different fertilizers and pesticides.
Other potential sources include underground storage tanks, road salt application, and miscellaneous leaks and spills from manufacturing processes.
Sustaining Our Wetlands
Historically, wetlands have been considered wastelands to be drained as soon as possible for productive use. Their complex ecological and hydrological functions were mostly unrecognized. Only recently have wetlands been accepted as valuable natural resources that provide important benefits to the public and the environment if properly conserved. Wetlands protect and enhance water supplies, improve water quality, help control flood damage, provide habitat for wildlife, and protect overall ecosystem stability and biodiversity.
It is estimated that Tennessee’s wetlands originally covered some 2 million acres. By 1982, approximately 60 percent of our wetlands had been lost. Tennessee has sought to halt that decline through the implementation of a “no net loss” policy, purchase of wetlands, mitigation banks and the issuance of permits for dredge and fill material.
Since 1970, the TDEC has awarded over $250 million in grants to Tennessee cities to build wastewater treatment facilities. In 1987, Tennessee became the first state in the South to initiate a revolving loan program. Since its inception, the State Revolving Loan Program has provided another $250 million to Tennessee cities. Unlike grants, these dollars will continue to grow as they are paid back with interest. As cities take advantage of these low-interest loans, the state can focus repaid dollars in areas where our lakes and rivers are most at risk.
The gross pollution evident in many rivers during the early 1970s has been largely corrected by improvements in municipal and industrial waste treatment. Pollution control technology has kept the number of impacted streams relatively low despite the tremendous increase in population and industrial growth occurring over the past 20 years.
Fish have returned to Parksville Reservoir on the Ocoee River after being absent for over a century. The Ocoee, once known as one of the best examples of man’s disregard for the environment, is now better known for its Olympic-class white water. The diversity of aquatic life has increased in the Watauga River and the South Fork of the Holston River after decades of industrial and municipal pollution. Historical water quality problems below certain reservoir dams have been addressed, and resources have been diverted for corrective measures.
Despite these improvements, much remains to be done. As our streams have recovered and our ability to detect chemical pollutants has improved, we must now address less noticeable but potentially more serious problems. In some places, the residues of past discharges remain in sediments where they concentrate in food chains, endangering human health and ecosystems. Persistent organic chemicals, such as PCBs, chlordane and dioxin, which were not seen as problems in 1972, are today the primary contaminants in fish taken from posted streams and lakes.
Groundwater is particularly susceptible to surface spills and even more difficult to restore than surface water. The economics of pollution prevention compared to pollution treatment are particularly critical to this resource.
Our water resources will continue to play a crucial role in our quality of life. To protect these resources for future generations, we must continue on the course set out by the Water Quality Control Board to reclaim polluted waters, prevent future pollution and plan for the future use of our state’s waters.
Rebirth of the Pigeon River
In a scenic valley in East Tennessee, motorists on Interstate 40 can see a picturesque river flowing through North Carolina and crossing into Tennessee. The Pigeon River flows through some of the most spectacular terrain in our state. Until recent years
, however, motorists would notice foam floating across the tea-colored
water and wonder what unseen influence was spoiling this scenic river.
Pigeon River at Waterville Bridge, November 1983
For decades, the Pigeon River was severely polluted by waste originating in North Carolina, which deprived Cocke County citizens of water for drinking or industrial purposes. There were few, if any, fish available for sports fishing, and no one thought of canoeing in a stream that smelled of papermill waste.
The "rebirth" of the Pigeon River has been a slow and sometimes convoluted process. Tennessee’s concerted drive to clean up the river began in 1981 and continues today. After years of effort, legal challenges were pursued to the Tennessee Supreme Court and the U.S. Court of Appeals. Initially, the State of North Carolina and the paper manufacturer, Champion International Corporation, objected to Tennessee’s interference, and the North Carolina Legislature threatened to ban the import of Tennessee’s Jack Daniels products.
The resolution of water quality issues between Champion International and Tennessee culminated in 1990 when Champion undertook a $330 million mill modernization. Because of Champion’s efforts to clean up the river, some 45,000 people were able to raft the Pigeon in 1995. The paper plant has completely eliminated chlorine bleaching, which will help control the more recently discovered problem of dioxin by-products in river sediments that have contaminated fish downstream of the mill. Tennessee still recommends that fish taken from the Pigeon not be eaten because of that contamination.
Although the color in the river is still noticeable during periods of low flow, the Pigeon is on the way to recovery. Its new status will bring hours of pleasure for those boating on its waters and satisfaction to all those who fought so hard for its recovery!
Safe Drinking Water
Safe water has been a concern throughout history. Chemical treatment of water in the United States began on a large scale in 1908. By 1941, over 85 percent of the nation’s water treatment plants used chlorine compounds to purify water.
Failure to monitor adequately for
bacteria is the most frequent violation incurred by public water systems,
with violations for exceeding maximum contaminant levels for
bacteriologicals ranking second. Surface water tretment violations
tyypically include a combination of inadequate particle removal and/or
insufficient disinfectant concentrations. However, the majority of these
violations were issued because systems have not yet complied with a new
rule to install filtration systems by January 1996 or because of new
equipment adjustments.
Tennessee’s drinking water program is recognized by the EPA as one of the most effective programs in the nation. Overall, public water supplies in Tennessee have an excellent record of providing clean water to millions of citizens each year. Only 3 percent of Tennessee’s water systems were out of compliance during 1994.
Tennessee public water systems serve approximately 4.5 million people. About 67 percent of our population receives water from surface water sources, such as rivers, lakes and streams, while the remainder receive water taken from underground sources. Generally, water taken from Tennessee’s underground supplies needs only minimal treatment to meet drinking water standards. Drinking water taken from surface water sources is treated to remove particles, bacteria that resist disinfection and any chemical contaminants.
Waterborne Illnesses
Across the country, improperly treated water affects thousands of people each year. However, reported episodes of waterborne illnesses occur infrequently in Tennessee. During 1994, one reported incident of waterborne illness occurred when several inmates and staff of the Northeast Regional Prison near Johnson City became ill after drinking tap water contaminated with Giardia lamblia. The prison’s water supply had been contaminated by an illegal cross-connection inadvertently made between the prison’s water supply line and a sewer line.
Also during 1994, precautionary boil water notices were issued at Bluff City (Sullivan County) and Vanleer (Dickson County) because of treatment technique failures or elevated turbidity levels after major rainfalls. These were precautionary notices
issued quickly after the potential arose for harm to the public, and no incidences of illness were reported.
Tennessee requires that surface water be filtered to remove disinfection-resistant pathogens, such as Cryptosporidium parvum. In 1993, approximately 400,000 people in Milwaukee, Minnesota, became ill from this organism, which is present in rivers and lakes all over the country.
Traditional disinfection processes using chlorine do not affect Cryptosporidium. However, it appears that efficiently and properly operated filtration plants will remove this organism from water. Studies are continuing to determine what level of treatment will prevent this organism from entering our drinking water and how to render it non-infectious.
Other Contaminants
The Tennessee Safe Drinking Water Act and state regulations require public water supplies to conduct a wide range of chemical and bacteriological monitoring. Monitoring frequency and quantity depends on the type and size of the system, the water source, treatments applied and many other characteristics.
Bacteria are perhaps the most common contaminants, and all public water systems must monitor the bacteriological content of the water supplied to customers. With improved operator training, increased inspections and improved testing capabilities, bacteriological monitoring violations have decreased steadily over the past 10 years.
In Tennessee, no source of water used by public water systems has been found to contain lead or copper in quantities of concern. Typically, lead and copper enter water after it leaves the local treatment plant. The most common means is through corrosion, a dissolving reaction between water and the lead in solder and copper pipes. “Soft” water is a common cause of corrosion, particularly in West Tennessee and in the easternmost portion of the state. Acidity, or a low pH, also contributes to corrosion.
Over 90 percent of the state’s 600 public water systems have tested below the EPA action levels of 15 parts per billion of lead and 1.3 parts per million of copper. Tests are also routinely conducted on samples taken from customers’ water faucets. If the customers’ water samples test above the EPA action levels, the system must take steps to reduce these levels.
Most often, systems treat water to increase its ability to resist changes in pH and to neutralize acidity. In addition, chemical treatment of the water with inhibitors that place a protective barrier or lining between the water and plumbing is often used. Systems with contaminant levels above the EPA testing maximum must initiate a public education program advising consumers about actions that will reduce the risk to lead or copper in the home, such as flushing water lines before collecting water for cooking or drinking.
Historically, arsenic, radon and uranium are not problem contaminants in Tennessee drinking water. Although some radon has been detected in private wells in Lewis and Maury counties, this does not appear to be a problem in public water supplies across the state.
There has been a continuing discussion about trihalomethanes in treated water. A by-product of the chlorination process, trihalomethane is a suspected carcinogen. To date, no public water system in Tennessee has exceeded the EPA maximum contaminant level for trihalomethanes.
Additional staff provided under the Environmental Protection Fund Act of 1991 has allowed the state to implement Safe Drinking Water Act provisions that will reduce the amount of unnecessary testing by public water supplies. These provisions will save
water suppliers approximately $4.3 million in laboratory analytical costs every monitoring period (three years), excluding the administrative costs of collecting and shipping samples and recordkeeping. This will allow public water systems to focus more of their resources on problem areas.